Which item is NOT a threat to internal validity in a counseling study?

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Internal validity asks whether observed changes can be attributed to the counseling intervention rather than other factors. Random assignment is not a threat to internal validity; it strengthens it by making groups comparable at the start and reducing selection bias, so differences in outcomes are more likely due to the treatment itself. In contrast, history refers to events that happen between assessments that could influence results, maturation is the natural change in participants over time, and instrumentation involves changes in the measurement method or its application. These can introduce changes in the dependent variable unrelated to the intervention, thus threatening internal validity.